1. Tripartite Struggle

• A prolonged political and military conflict during the 8th to 10th centuries CE for control of Kannauj in North India.
• It is also called the Kannauj Triangle War.

2. Pala Dynasty

Gopala, c. 750 to 770 CE

• Elected by local leaders to end political disorder in Bengal.
• Associated with the foundation of Odantapuri University.

Dharmapala, c. 770 to 810 CE

• One of the most expansionist Pala rulers.
• Title: Paramesaugata.
• Founded Vikramashila University, associated with Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism.
• Also associated with Somapura University.
• Defeated Indrayudha and established Chakrayudha as ruler at Kannauj for a period.
• Assumed the title Uttarapath Swami, meaning Lord of the North.

Devapala, c. 810 to 850 CE

• Expanded the Pala Empire to a major extent.
• Campaigns extended toward Assam, Odisha and parts of the Deccan.
• Sent Buddhist missions towards Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.
• Strengthened the Pala navy for overseas missions and coastal control.
• Continued patronage of Nalanda and Vikramashila.
• Granted land revenue from five villages for a monastery at Nalanda after a request associated with the Sailendra ruler of Srivijaya.
• Important Buddhist scholars associated with the period include Dipankar Atisha and Dharmasvami.

Mahipala I, c. 988 to 1038 CE

• Revived the Pala dynasty after a period of decline.
• Recovered territories in northern and eastern Bengal and Bihar.
• Mentioned in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, written in Sanskrit.

3. Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Nagabhata I, c. 730 to 760 CE

• Founder of the dynasty.
• Capital: Kannauj and Bhinmal are associated with Pratihara power in the sources.
• Defeated Arab forces in Rajasthan, remembered as an important early resistance to Arab expansion.

Vatsaraja

• First Pratihara ruler prominently involved in the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj.
• Faced defeat by Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty.

Nagabhata II

• Recovered Kannauj.
• Defeated Dharmapala but was later defeated by Govinda III of the Rashtrakutas.

Ramabhadra

• Son of Nagabhata II; remembered as a relatively weak ruler with a short reign.

Mihira Bhoja or Bhoja I, c. 836 to 885 CE

• One of the most powerful Gurjara Pratihara rulers.
• Extended the empire from Gujarat towards Bengal.
• Adopted the title Adivaraha.
• Coins were issued with the Varaha or boar image.
• Arab traveller Sulaiman described Bhoja as a powerful ruler and referred to him as an enemy of Islam.
• Gwalior inscription: records Bhoja’s victories and claims victory over Devala of the Pala dynasty; it also records Pratihara power around Kannauj.

Mahendrapala I, c. 885 to 910 CE

• Son of Mihira Bhoja.
• Maintained the strength and prosperity of the empire.
• Ruled a large territory extending from Punjab to Bengal.
• Conducted a campaign against Kashmir and fought Shankaravarman of Kashmir.
• His court was an important centre of Sanskrit learning.
• Patronised Rajasekhara, a celebrated Sanskrit poet and dramatist.

Rajasekhara’s important works

Later Pratihara rulers

• Mahipala I: defeated by Indra III of the Rashtrakutas around 915 CE; Kannauj was lost and decline began.
• Bhoja II: weak rule and internal conflicts.
• Vijayapala: ruled during the declining phase and lost territory.
• Rajyapala: ruled during Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasion in 1018 CE and offered no effective resistance according to the source.
• Rajyapala was later killed by the Chandela ruler Vidyadhara.
• Trilochanapala: ruled during the final collapse of Pratihara power.

4. Sena Dynasty

• Founder: Hemanta Sena, around 1095 CE.
• Real founder: Vijay Sena.
• Capital: Vijayapura.
• Highly centralised monarchy.
• Ruled Bengal after the decline of the Pala dynasty, mainly during the 11th and 12th centuries CE.
• Lakshman Sena was a notable ruler; the poet Jayadeva wrote Gita Govinda during the Sena period.
• The Senas revived Brahmanism in Bengal.
• Rulers: Ballala Sena and Lakshman Sena.
• Ballala Sena is associated with the introduction of Kulinism.
• Vijaya Sena greatly strengthened the dynasty.
• Bakhtiyar Khalji attacked Lakshman Sena in 1204 CE, marking the end of Sena rule in Bengal.

5. Chola Dynasty, c. 850 to 1280 CE

• The early Cholas emerged as feudatories of the Pallavas.
• Religion: primarily Shaivism, while showing tolerance toward other faiths.
• Known for strong naval power, Dravidian temple architecture, administrative organisation and local self-government.

Vijayalaya Chola, c. 850 to 871 CE

• Captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyars and established Chola power in South India.
• Built a temple dedicated to Nishumbhasudini, a form of Durga.
• Title: Narkesari, meaning Lion among men.

Aditya I, c. 871 to 907 CE

• Son of Vijayalaya.
• Defeated Pallava ruler Aparajita, contributing to the decline of Pallava power.
• Extended Chola influence in the Kaveri Valley.
• After defeating the Pandyas in Madurai and Tirunelveli regions, assumed the title Madurai Konda.

Parantaka I, c. 907 to 955 CE

• Defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III in the Battle of Takkolam.
• Krishna III erected the Krishneshwara Temple at Rameshwaram after his victory.
• Uttaramerur inscription provides important evidence about Chola local administration.
• Defeated the Pandyas at Vellore and temporarily occupied Sri Lanka.
• Title: Maduraiyum Elamum Konda, meaning conqueror of Madurai and Lanka.
• Coins included Kasu and Kalanju.

Rajaraja I, c. 985 to 1014 CE

• Regarded as a major architect of Chola imperial expansion.
• Defeated the Cheras at Trivandrum and conquered Madurai from the Pandyas.
• Conquered the Maldives and invaded Sri Lanka.
• Permitted the Sailendra ruler of Srivijaya to construct the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at Nagapattinam.
• Introduced important land-revenue and administrative arrangements.
• Built the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur, also known as Rajarajeswara Temple.

Rajendra I, c. 1014 to 1044 CE

• Son of Rajaraja I.
• Known in the source as the Napoleon of South India.
• Launched naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, Burma, the Andaman Islands and Srivijaya.
• Conquered the Sri Lankan capital Anuradhapura.
• Crossed the Ganga, defeated rulers in Bengal and adopted the title Gangaikondachola.
• Established Gangaikondacholapuram as a new capital.
• Built the Chola Ganga Lake, also called Ponneri Lake.
• Brought Ganga water to his capital in a golden pot according to the source.
• Conquered Andhra, Odisha and Bengal, taking the empire to a high point.

Successors

• Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II and Virarajendra: continued imperial activity and faced resistance from Western Chalukyas and Pandyas.
• Kulottunga I: united Chola and Eastern Chalukya lines; focused more on administration and consolidation; promoted trade with Southeast Asia and China.
• Later Cholas: gradual decline; conflict with Western Chalukyas and eventual defeat by the Pandyas in the 13th century.

6. Chola Administration

• The king held the supreme authority and was assisted by a Council of Ministers.
• The empire was organised into administrative units: Mandalam, Valanadu, Nadu, Kurram and Ur.
• Chola administration is especially famous for local and village self-government.

Uttaramerur Inscriptions

• Provide detailed evidence of well-organised village administration.
• Each village was divided into 30 wards called Kudumbus.
• Each ward was governed through a local committee called a Variyam.
• Two important assemblies were Ur, the assembly of common people, and Sabha, the assembly of learned Brahmins in Brahmadeya villages.
• Specialised committees included Eri Variyam for tanks and irrigation, Tottavariyam for gardens, Pon Variyam for gold and finance, and Nyaya Variyam for justice.
• Committee members were selected through the Kudavolai system, a form of selection by lot.
• Committee membership was generally for three years.

7. Chola Land Grants and Taxes

8. Great Living Chola Temples

• The Great Living Chola Temples are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• They are noted for monumental Dravidian architecture and the use of an interlocking stone construction method.

9. Temple Architecture

10. Major Temple and Architecture Facts

• Brihadeeswara Temple: associated with Rajaraja I and Thanjavur.
• Gangaikondacholapuram: associated with Rajendra I.
• Uttaramerur: key evidence for Chola village self-government.
• Nataraja: dancing form of Shiva performing Tandava; Chola bronzes are especially famous for lost-wax casting.
• Airavatesvara Temple: Darasuram, associated with Rajaraja II.
• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple: Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh; built by Chandela rulers; its walls are noted for sculptural depictions including themes associated with the Kamasutra.
• Konark Sun Temple: Odisha; built by Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty; associated with the chariot concept, 24 carved stone wheels and seven horses.
• Lingaraj Temple: Odisha; associated with the Somavamsi tradition; combines Rekha Deula and Pidha Deula elements.
• Jagannath Puri Temple: Odisha; popularly called the White Pagoda; Rekha Deula style; associated with Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
• Mukteshvara Temple: Odisha; Somavamsi association; Kalinga style; dedicated to Shiva.
• Modhera Sun Temple: Gujarat; built by Bhimadeva I; Maru Gurjara style.
• Somnath Temple: Gujarat; associated with the Maru Gurjara style in the source.
• Vaital Deula: Bhubaneswar; example of Khakhara Deula, with a barrel-vaulted roof.
• Khajuraho temple architecture: Nagara tradition; Rekha Prasada, Phamsana and Valabhi are shown as forms of shikhara architecture.

11. Kalinga Architecture

• Kalinga architecture of Odisha is described through three principal temple types.

12. Post-Chola Dynasties

13. One-Minute Revision

Note: Dates and historical interpretations are presented as competitive-exam revision points based primarily on the supplied pages. Where the source uses simplified wording, the notes retain the exam-oriented formulation.